<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.0 20040830//EN" "http://dtd.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/2.0/journalpublishing.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="2.0" xml:lang="EN">
  <front>    <journal-meta>
      <journal-title>Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology</journal-title>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2141-2316</issn>      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Academic Journals</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5897/JPHE2016.0840</article-id>
      <title-group>
        <article-title><![CDATA[The prevalence and predisposing factors of norovirus and astrovirus infection among diarrheic children in north east, Nigeria]]></article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple">
        		        	<name name-style="western">
	            <surname>Oyinloye,</surname>
            <given-names>S. O.</given-names>
	          </name>	
        		        	<name name-style="western">
	            <surname>Aminu,</surname>
            <given-names>M.</given-names>
	          </name>	
        		        	<name name-style="western">
	            <surname>Ella,</surname>
            <given-names>E. E.</given-names>
	          </name>	
        		        	<name name-style="western">
	            <surname>Jatau,</surname>
            <given-names>E. D.</given-names>
	          </name>	
        	        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
		<corresp id="cor1">* E-mail: <email xlink:type="simple">faisam26@gmail.com</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
      	<day>31</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <history>
      			<date date-type="received">
			<day>06</day>
			<month>06</month>
			<year>2016</year>
		</date>
						<date date-type="accepted">
			<day>01</day>
			<month>08</month>
			<year>2016</year>
		</date>
			  </history>
      <volume>8</volume>
      <issue>10</issue>
	  	  <fpage>204</fpage>
	  <lpage>210</lpage>
      <permissions>
		<license xlink:type="simple">
			<license-p>
			This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
			</license-p>
		</license>
	  </permissions>
	  <self-uri xlink:href="http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/JPHE/article-abstract/756D10A60542">
		This article is available from http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/JPHE/article-abstract/756D10A60542	  </self-uri>
	  <self-uri xlink:href="http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/JPHE/article-full-text-pdf/756D10A60542">
		The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/JPHE/article-full-text-pdf/756D10A60542	  </self-uri>
	  
      <abstract><![CDATA[This is a case-control study design that aims to determine the prevalence of norovirus and astrovirus infections in diarrheic children in Northeast region of Nigeria. Six hundred diarrheic stools (which were neither mucoid nor blood tinged) of children of 5 years or below were collected between May 2013 ndash; April 2014. They were screened according to the manufacturerrsquo;s instruction, using a 3rd generation Ridascreen ELISA kit (R-Biopharm AG, Germany). The control group comprised thirty five non-diarrheic stools. Demographic data were collected via questionnaire administered to parents/guardians of the subjects and analysis was done using online Easy-Chi-square (plt;0.05) statistical package. An overall norovirus and astrovirus prevalence of 6.7% (40/600) and 5.0% (30/600) respectively across the Northeast region was obtained. The prevalence of norovirus in Taraba, Bauchi and Borno states was 7 (14/200), 5 (10/200) and 8% (16/200), while that of astrovirus was 5.5 (11/200) 4.5 (9/200) and 5% (10/200), respectively. The sex distribution of number of male relative to female children sampled reveals a preponderance of male (336/600) over female (264/600). Prevalence of norovirus and astrovirus antigen was high in children aged 1 to 2 years across the region. Source of drinking water, nearness of toilet to source of drinking water, hand washing after toilet use, playing with toys, attendance of day care center and educational status of parents were statistically (plt;0.05) and significantly contributory factors to infection. The prevalence of norovirus (6.7%) and astrovirus (5.0%) in diarrhea in Northeast Nigeria has shown that both viruses contribute to childhood diarrhea, with most of the children infected below age 2.

	 

	Key words: Prevalence, predisposing factors, norovirus, astrovirus, diarrhea, north-east, Nigeria.]]></abstract>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
      <body/>
    <back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
						<ref id="ref1">
				<label>1</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Aminu M, Esona MD, Geyer A, Steele AD (2008). Epidemiology of rotavirus and Astrovirus Infections in children in northwestern Nigeria. Ann. Afr. Med. 7(4):168- 174.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref2">
				<label>2</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Aoki Y, Suto A, Mizuta K, Ahiko T, Osaka K, Matsuzaki Y (2010). Duration of norovirus excretion and the longitudinal course of viral load in norovirus-infected elderly patients. J. Hosp. Infect. 75(1):42-46.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref3">
				<label>3</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Arthur JL, Higgins GD, Davidson GP, Givney RC, Ratcliff RM (2009). A novel bocavirus associated with acute gastroenteritis in Australian children. PLoS Pathog 5:e1000391.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref4">
				<label>4</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Ayolabi CI, Ojo DA, Armah GE, Akpan I, Mafiana CF (2010). Detection and partial characterization of norovirus among children with acute gastroenteritis in Lagos, Nigeria. Int J Med. Med. Sci. 2(7):216-221.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref5">
				<label>5</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Ayukekbong J, Lindh M, Nenonen N, Tah F, Nkuo-Akenji T (2011). Enteric viruses in healthy children in Cameroon: viral load and genotyping of norovirus strains. J. Med. Virol. 83:2135-2142.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref6">
				<label>6</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Babalola MO, Odaibo GN, Olaleye DO, Alonge AO (2015). Enteric Adenovirus and Norovirus Gastroenteritis among Under-5 years Children in Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. Br. J. Med. Med. Res. 9:1-9.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref7">
				<label>7</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Bucardo F, Nordgren J, Carlsson B, Kindberg E Paniagua M (2010). Asymptomatic norovirus infections in Nicaraguan children and its association with viral properties and histo-blood group antigens. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29:934-939.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref8">
				<label>8</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Benschop K, Thomas X, Serpenti C, Molenkamp R, Wolthers K (2008). High prevalence of human Parechovirus (HPeV) genotypes in the Amsterdam region and identification of specific HPeV variants by direct genotyping of stool samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:3965-3970.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref9">
				<label>9</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Blanton LH, Adams SM, Beard RS, Wei G, Bulens SN, Widdowson MA (2006). Molecular and epidemiologic trends of caliciviruses associated with outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis in the United States 20002004. J. Infect. Dis. 193:413-421.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref10">
				<label>10</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Cheng WX, Jin Y, Duan ZJ (2008). Human bocavirus in children hospitalized for acute gastroenteritis: A case-control study. Clin.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref11">
				<label>11</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[De Benedictis P, Schultz-Cherry S, Burnham A. Cattoli G (2011). Astrovirus infections in humans and animals - molecular biology, genetic diversity, and interspecies transmissions. Infect. Genet. Evol. 11:1529-1544.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref12">
				<label>12</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Dove W, Cunliffe NA, Gondwe JS, Broadhead RL, Molyneux ME (2005). Detection and characterization of human caliciviruses in hospitalized children with acute gastroenteritis in Blantyre, Malawi. J.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref13">
				<label>13</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Farkas J, Jiang X (2007). Rotaviruses, caliciviruses, astroviruses, enteric adenoviruses, and other diarrheic viruses. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Jorgensen JH, Landry ML, Pfaller MA (Eds.). Manual of clinical microbiology, 9th ed. Washington DC: Am. Soc. Microbiol. pp. 1453-1469.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref14">
				<label>14</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Fischer TK, Viboud C, Parashar U (2007). Hospitalizations and death from diarrhea and rotavirus among children  5years of age in the United States, 1993-2003. J. Infect. Dis. 195:1117-1125.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref15">
				<label>15</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Gupta S, Singh KP, Amita J, Srivastava S, Kumar V, Singh M (2015). Aetiology of childhood viral gastroenteritis in Lucknow, north India. Indian J. Med. Res. 141:469-472.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref16">
				<label>16</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Hugo CPS, Larissa CT, Fabola SF (2014). Screening of fecal samples from Asymptomatic children, for norovirus Detection, using a third generation enzyme Immunoassay commercial kit. Rev. Patol. Trop. 43:143-149.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref17">
				<label>17</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Japhet MO, Adesina OA, Famurewa O, Svensson L, Nordgren J (2012). Molecular Epidemiology of rotavirus and norovirus in Ile-Ife, Nigeria: High prevalence of G12P[8] rotavirus strains and detection of a rare norovirus genotype. J. Med. Virol. 84:1489-1496.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref18">
				<label>18</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kirkwood CD, Bishop RF (2001). Molecular detection of human calicivirus in young children hospitalized with acute gastroenteritis in Melbourne, Australia, during 1999. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39:2722-2724.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref19">
				<label>19</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Koopmans M (2008). Progress in understanding norovirus epidemiology. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21:544-552.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref20">
				<label>20</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kroneman A, Vennema H, Deforche KVD, Avoort H, Penaranda S, Oberste MS, Vinje J, Koopmans M (2011). An automated genotyping tool for enteroviruses and noroviruses. J. Clin. Virol. 51:121-125.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref21">
				<label>21</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kuta FA, Damisa D, Adabara NU, Abdulsalam R (2014). Prevalence of astrovirus infection in children in Nasarawa state, Nigeria. Global Adv. Res. J. Microbiol. 3(6):102-105.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref22">
				<label>22</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Lindesmith IC, Donaldson EF, Baric RS (2011). Norovirus GII.4 strain antigenic variation. J. Virol. 85:231-242
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref23">
				<label>23</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S (2012). Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet 379:2151-2161.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref24">
				<label>24</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Madeley CR, Cosgrove BP (1975). Letter: 28 nm particles in faeces in infantile gastroenteritis. Lancet 2:451-452.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref25">
				<label>25</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mattison K, Sebunya TK, Shukla A, Noliwe LN, Bidawid S (2010). Molecular detection and characterization of noroviruses from children in Botswana. J. Med. Virol. 82:321-324.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref26">
				<label>26</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Nordgren J, Nitiema LW, Ouermi D, Simpore J, Svensson L (2013). Host genetic factors affect susceptibility to norovirus infections in Burkina Faso. PLOS ONE 8(7):1-10.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref27">
				<label>27</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Pang XL, Vesikari T (1999). Human astrovirus-associated gastroenteritis in children under 2 years of age followed prospectively during a rotavirus vaccine trial. Acta Paediatr. 88:532-536.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref28">
				<label>28</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Payne DC, Vinj J, Szilagyi PG (2013). Norovirus and Medically Attended Gastroenteritis in U.S. Children. N. Engl. J. Med. 368(12):1121-1130.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref29">
				<label>29</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Rivera R, Nollens HH, Venn-Watson S, Gulland FMD, Wellehan JFXJ (2009). Characterization of phylogenetically diverse Astroviruses of marine mammals. J. Gen. Virol. 91(1):166-173.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref30">
				<label>30</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Robilotti E, Deresinski S, Pinsky BA (2015). Norovirus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 28:134-164.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref31">
				<label>31</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Verma H, Chitambar SD, Gopalkrishna V (2011). Circulation of Aichi virus genotype B strains in children with acute gastroenteritis in India. Epidemiol. Infect. 139:1-5.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref32">
				<label>32</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Zhang DL, Jin Y, Li DD (2011). Prevalence of human parechovirus in Chinese children hospitalized for acute gastroenteritis. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 17:1563-1569.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref33">
				<label>33</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Zheng M, Zhang Y, Zhu Q, Wang X, Yu H (2010). Clinical and molecular epidemiology of rotavirus in children with community acquired and hospital-acquired diarrhea in Shangai, China. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29(2):177-180.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref34">
				<label>34</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Zhou N, Lin X, Wang S, Wang H, Li W, Tao Z, Xu A (2014). Environmental Surveillance for Human Astrovirus in Shandong Province, China in 2013. Sci. Reports 4(7539):1-5.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
					</ref-list>
	</back>
    </article>