<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.0 20040830//EN" "http://dtd.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/2.0/journalpublishing.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="2.0" xml:lang="EN">
  <front>    <journal-meta>
      <journal-title>International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation</journal-title>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2141-243X</issn>      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Academic Journals</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5897/IJBC2023.1582</article-id>
      <title-group>
        <article-title><![CDATA[Rural women vulnerability to human-wildlife conflicts: Lessons from villages near Mikumi National Park, Southeast Tanzania]]></article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple">
        		        	<name name-style="western">
	            <surname>Evodius</surname>
            <given-names>Waziri Rutta</given-names>
	          </name>	
        	        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
		<corresp id="cor1">* E-mail: <email xlink:type="simple">erutta83@gmail.com</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
      	<day>31</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <history>
      			<date date-type="received">
			<day>10</day>
			<month>03</month>
			<year>2023</year>
		</date>
						<date date-type="accepted">
			<day>13</day>
			<month>06</month>
			<year>2023</year>
		</date>
			  </history>
      <volume>15</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
	  	  <fpage>92</fpage>
	  <lpage>105</lpage>
      <permissions>
		<license xlink:type="simple">
			<license-p>
			This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
			</license-p>
		</license>
	  </permissions>
	  <self-uri xlink:href="http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/IJBC/article-abstract/9D1C40570983">
		This article is available from http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/IJBC/article-abstract/9D1C40570983	  </self-uri>
	  <self-uri xlink:href="http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/IJBC/article-full-text-pdf/9D1C40570983">
		The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://politicalwaffle.uk/journal/IJBC/article-full-text-pdf/9D1C40570983	  </self-uri>
	  
      <abstract><![CDATA[Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) remain a serious conservation problem in Tanzania, particularly for rural communities near national parks. Despite this prevalence, research on rural womenrsquo;s experiences with human-wildlife conflicts is limited. To address this research gap, this study examined the impacts of HWC on rural women from two villages neighboring Mikumi National Park (MNP) in Southeast Tanzania. A total of 20 adult female victims of human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) were purposely selected and interviewed to understand the impacts of human-wildlife conflicts in their lives. Findings indicate that loss of grassland and water within MNP borders exacerbated by climate change are pushing wild animals from MNP to seek food in nearby villages, causing frequent human-wildlife tensions. Crop damages, livestock killings, household food insecurity, and fears for physical safety were found to be significant impacts of HWC increasing rural womenrsquo;s vulnerability to poverty. Despite these conservation threats, most interviewed HWC victims receive very little support from conservation authorities threatening the survival of wild animals from MNP. For peaceful co-existence, the study recommends empowering rural women with conservation training on HWC prevention and investment in the large-scale restoration of degraded lands and water sources to reduce competition over natural resources between humans and wildlife.

	 

	Key words: Human-wildlife conflict, rural women, Mikumi National Park, Tanzania.]]></abstract>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
      <body/>
    <back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
						<ref id="ref1">
				<label>1</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Abrahms B, Carter NH, Clark-Wolf TJ, Gaynor KM, Johansson E, McInturff A, Nisi AC, Rafiq K, Wes L (2023). Climate Change as a Global Amplifier of Human-wildlife Conflict. Nature Climate Change.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref2">
				<label>2</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Agarwal B (2009). Gender and Forest Conservation: The Impact of Womens Participation in Community Forest Governance. Ecological Economics 68(11):2785-2799.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref3">
				<label>3</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Al Jazeera (2019). Elephant, rhino populations on the rise in Tanzania: Government. Retrieved from View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref4">
				<label>4</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Anderson J, Mehta S (2013). A global Assessment of Community Based Natural Resource Management: Addressing the Critical challenges of the rural sector. USAID (United States Agency for International Development) International Resources Group.
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref5">
				<label>5</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Andrade GS, Rhodes JR (2012). Protected Areas and Local Communities: An Inevitable Partnership toward Successful Conservation Strategies? Ecology and Society 17(4):14.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref6">
				<label>6</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Benjaminsen TA, Goldman MJ, Minwary MY, Maganga FP (2013). Wildlife Management in Tanzania: State Control, Rent Seeking, and Community Resistance. Development and Change 44(5):1087-1109.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref7">
				<label>7</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Bluwstein J, Homewood K, Lund J, Nielsen MR, Burgess N, Msuha M, Olila J, Stephen S, Millia KS, Laizer H, Elisante F, Keane AA (2018). Quasi-experimental Study of Impacts of Tanzanias Wildlife Management Areas on Rural Livelihoods and Wealth. Scientific Data 5:180087.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref8">
				<label>8</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Braun V, Clarke V (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2):77-101.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref9">
				<label>9</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Brooks JS, Waylen KA, Borgerhoff MM (2012). How National Context, Project Design, and Local Community Characteristics Influence Success in Community-based Conservation Projects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109(52):21265-21270.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref10">
				<label>10</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Costa S, Casanova C, Lee P (2017). What Does Conservation Mean for Women? The Case of the Cantanhez Forest National Park. Conservation and Society 15(2):168-178.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref11">
				<label>11</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Dickman AJ (2010). Complexities of Conflict: The Importance of Considering Social Factors for Effectively Resolving Human-wildlife conflict. Animal Conservation 13:458-466.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref12">
				<label>12</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Eustace A, Kisingo AW, Mbwiliza JS (2018). Wildlife Damage in Villages Surrounding the Serengeti Ecosystem. Parks.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref13">
				<label>13</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Felix N, Kissui BM, Munishi L, Treydte AC (2022). Retaliatory Killing Negatively affects African lion (Panthera leo) male coalitions in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS ONE 17(8):e0272272.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref14">
				<label>14</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Frank B (2016). Human-Wildlife Conflicts and the Need to Include Tolerance and Coexistence: An Introductory Comment, Society  Natural Resources 29(6):738-743.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref15">
				<label>15</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Homewood K, Martin RN, Aidan K (2022). Women, Wellbeing and Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania, The Journal of Peasant Studies 49(2):335-362.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref16">
				<label>16</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Independent (2019). Endangered Rhino and Elephant Numbers Rise after Crackdown on Poaching, says Tanzania. Retrieved from:
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref17">
				<label>17</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kegamba J, Kamaljit KS, Penelope W, Stephen T. Garnett (2022). A review of Conservation-related Benefit-sharing Mechanisms in Tanzania, Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 33.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref18">
				<label>18</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kaswamila A, Russell S, McGibbon M (2007). Impacts of Wildlife on Household Food Security and Income in Northeastern Tanzania. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 12(6):391-404.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref19">
				<label>19</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kaswamila A (2009). Human-wildlifee Conflicts in Monduli District, Tanzania. International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 5(4):199-207.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref20">
				<label>20</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Khumalo KE, Yung LA (2015). Women, Human-Wildlife Conflict, and CBNRM: Hidden Impacts and Vulnerabilities in Kwandu Conservancy, Namibia. Conservation and Society 13(3):232-243.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref21">
				<label>21</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kideghesho J, Mtoni PE (2008). Who Compensates for Wildlife Conservation in Serengeti? The International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 4(2):112-125.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref22">
				<label>22</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kilungu H, Leemans R, Munishi PKT, Amelung B (2017). Climate Change Threatens Major Tourist Attractions and Tourism in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. In: Leal Filho, W., Belay, S., Kalangu, J., Menas, W., Munishi, P., Musiyiwa, K. (eds) Climate Change Adaptation in Africa. Climate Change Management. Springer, Cham.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref23">
				<label>23</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Komba A (2012). Looking Backward and Forward: Gainers and Losers in Tanzanias Primary Education System. Papers in Education and Development 31:21-45.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref24">
				<label>24</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kohi E, Lobora A (2018). Ecology and Behavioral Studies of Elephant in the Selous-Mikumi Ecosystem. Annual report. TAWIRI and WWF.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref25">
				<label>25</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Krietzman R (2019). Women in Conservation: A Study of Effective Community-Based Conservation and the Empowerment of Women in Tanzania. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. 3028.
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref26">
				<label>26</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kupika OL, Nhamo G (2016). Mainstreaming Biodiversity and Wildlife Management into Climate Change Policy Frameworks in Selected East and Southern African countries. Jmb: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 8(3):a254.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref27">
				<label>27</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Kushnir H, Packer C (2019). Perceptions of Risk from Man-Eating Lions in Southeastern Tanzania. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7:47.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref28">
				<label>28</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Linuma OF, Mahenge A, Mato RRAM, Greenwood AD (2022). Drivers of Human-wildlife Interactions in a Co-existence Area: A case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Discover Sustainability 3:45.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref29">
				<label>29</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Malley GS, Gorenflo LJ (2023). Shifts in the Conflict-coexistence Continuum: Exploring Social-ecological Determinants of Human-elephant Interactions. PLoS ONE 18(3):e0274155.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref30">
				<label>30</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mariki S (2016). Social Impacts of Protected Areas on Gender in West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Open Journal of Social Sciences 4:220-235.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref31">
				<label>31</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mariki S, Svarstad H, Benjaminsen TA (2015). Elephants over the Cliff: Explaining Wildlife Killings in Tanzania. Land Use Policy.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref32">
				<label>32</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Matseketsa G, Muboko N, Gandiwa E, Kombora DM, Chibememe G (2019). An assessment of human-wildlife conflicts in local communities bordering the western part of Save Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe. Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 20.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref33">
				<label>33</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mayberry AL, Hovorka AJ, Evans KE (2017). Well-Being Impacts of Human-Elephant Conflict in Khumaga, Botswana: Exploring Visible and Hidden Dimensions. Conservation and Society 15(3):280-291.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref34">
				<label>34</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mayengo G, Bwagalilo F, Kalumanga VE (2017). Human Wildlife Conflicts to communities surrounding Mikumi National Parks in Tanzania: A case of selected villages. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 2(4):238852.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref35">
				<label>35</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mbise FP (2021). Attacks on Humans and Retaliatory Killing of Wild Carnivores in the Eastern Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania. Journal of Ecology and The Natural Environment 13(4):110-116.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref36">
				<label>36</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mkiramweni NP, DeLacy T, Jiang M, Chiwanga FE (2016). Climate Change Risks on Protected Areas Ecotourism: Shocks and Stressors Perspectives in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Journal of Ecotourism 15(2):139-157.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref37">
				<label>37</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mukeka JM, Ogutu J, Kanga E, Rskaft E (2019). Human-wildlife conflicts and their correlates in Narok County, Kenya. Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 18.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref38">
				<label>38</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Mwangi E, Meizen-Dick R, Sun Y (2011). Gender and Sustainable Forest Management in East Africa and Latin America. Ecology and Society 16(1):17.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref39">
				<label>39</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Ndibalema P (2022). A Paradox in the Accessibility of Basic Education Among Minority Pastoralist Communities in Tanzania. Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 21(1):44-68.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref40">
				<label>40</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Nyhus PJ (2016). Human-Wildlife Conflict and Coexistence. The Annual Review of Environment and Resources 41:143-171.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref41">
				<label>41</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Ogra MV (2008). Human-wildlife Conflict and Gender in Protected area Borderlands: A case Study of Costs, perceptions, and Vulnerabilities from Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), India. Geoforum 39(3).
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref42">
				<label>42</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Pesambili JC, Novelli M (2021). Maasai Students Encounter with Formal Education: Their Experiences with and Perceptions of Schooling Processes in Monduli, Tanzania. International Journal of Educational Research Open.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref43">
				<label>43</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Raymond A (2015). Pastoral Community Perspectives on Formal Education for Girls: An Ethnographic Study of Monduli District in Tanzania Ph.D. thesis. The University of Bristol.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref44">
				<label>44</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Rweyemamu DR (2019). Understanding the factors leading to conflicts among agropastoralist and farming communities in Morogoro region, Tanzania, and their implications for wellbeing: A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Lincoln University (Doctoral dissertation, Lincoln University).]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref45">
				<label>45</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Saruni PL, Urassa JK, Kajembe GC (2018). Forms and Drivers of Conflicts between Farmers and Pastoralists in Kilosa and Kiteto Districts, Tanzania. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 8(6).
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref46">
				<label>46</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Tanzania National Park Authority (TANAPA) (2007). Mikumi National Park. Wildlife at Glance (English Brochure).]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref47">
				<label>47</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) (2022). List of Publications.
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref48">
				<label>48</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Temba E, Leticia W, Msabila D (2013). Assessing Efforts to Address Cultural Constraints to Girls Access to Education Among the Maasai in Tanzania: A Case Study of Monduli District. Journal of International Cooperation in Education 15(3):21-37.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref49">
				<label>49</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Treves A, Wallace RB, Naughton-Treves L, Morales A (2006). Co-Managing Human-Wildlife Conflicts: A Review. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 11(6):383-396.
					]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref50">
				<label>50</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[UNICEF (2018). Global Initiative on out-of-school Children, Mara Region Case Study Report. Retrieved from:
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref51">
				<label>51</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (2020). Kilosa District Council. Kilosa District Investment Profile Opportunities and Promotion Strategies. Presidents Office Regional Administration and Local Government. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref52">
				<label>52</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (2019d). Vulnerable groups planning framework for Tanzania Secondary Education Quality Improvement Project (SEQUIP). Retrieved from:
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
						<ref id="ref53">
				<label>53</label>
				<mixed-citation publication-type="other" xlink:type="simple">
				<![CDATA[Voice of America (VOA) (2022). Report: Tanzanias Elephant Population Recovering. Retrieved from:
				
					View]]>
				</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
					</ref-list>
	</back>
    </article>